The Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe
In 802 C.E., an albino elephant, named Abu al-Abbas, was given to the Charlemagne empire by the Indian king. The elephant later died in 810 C.E.. However, Charlemagne did not like Islamic people. He fought many battles against Muslim armies. He sent at least three embassies to Baghdad that dealt with several issues including: the safety of Christian pilgrims and merchants, relations between Charlemagne's empire and its neighbors, and its policy toward the Byzantine empire. Charlemagne's empire fell because it was weak and poor compared to other empires. Europeans did not build powerful societies as quickly as other civilizations. After various invasions, Europeans had to restore political order, restore the economy, and build a framework for institutions. Christianity helped shape European culture and society.
The Quest for Political Order
Germanic Successor States
After the last Roman emperor, Roman administrative and government did not change altogether. Invasions caused population to decline and institutions weakend. By the late fifth century C.E., invaders set up a seriesof Germanic kingdoms. Visigoths dominated Spain, Ostrogoths dominated Italy until the 530s, Byzantines controlled much of the east Mediterranean Sea, Lombards dominated Italy after the 530s, Franks controlled France, and Angles and Saxons controlled Britain. Germanic people gradually displaced the Roman authority and institutions, but they also absorbed Roman influence. Many converted to Christianity and adapted Roman law. The Franks influenced political, social, and cultural development in Europe. The Frank society used agricultural resources of Europe and did not trade actively with the Mediterranean basin. They develped decentralized political institutions and made a strong alliance with the western Christian church.
The Franks and the Temporary Revival of Empired
As the Roman empire was falling, the Franks did not seem likely to have a very important role in European affairs. That all changed in 481 when a strong military leader, Clovis, came to rule the Franks until his death in 511. Under his rule, the rest of the Roman authority was destroyed and the Franks became an important military and political power. The Frank state became the most powerful and dynamic of all the new states. The Franks' rise also had to do with their religion. Originally most Germans were polytheistic and later converted to Arian Christianity. Unlike many other Germanic peoples, Clovis converted to Roman Christianity. The Franks received commitment from the pope and western Christian church by doing this. Strong ties with the church developed the Franks to the most powerful Germanic peoples between the fifth and ninth centuries. But, after Clovis's death, the Franks lost a majority of authority. Around the early 8th century, a clan called the Carolingians took over Clovis's place. The founder, Charles Martel reigned over the Franks until 751. The Franks reached their height when Martel's grandson, Charlemagne took over. He was very intelligent and established a capital and court. Although, he relied on counts (deputies) who held military, political, and legal power. The counts sometimes engage in policies opposite of the government, so Charlemagne developed a group of officers called missi dominici. Charlemagne extended the empire into north eastern Spain, Bavaria, and Italy (as far south as Rome). It was not until 800 CE that Charlemagne accepted the title of emperor because he did not want to upset Byzantine emperors.
Decline and Dissolution of the Carolingian Empire
Charlemagne's son, "Louis the Pious" reigned after his father died in 814 until 840. He didn't have the strong military skills or the will that his father did. Due to this, Louis lost control over authorities who pursued in their own interests. Louis had three sons who divided the empire into thirds after Louis's death, each ruling one part of the empire causing the empire to later collapse. The Carolingian empire also experienced invasions from the Frankish people, Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings, looking for wealth. Viking invasions were part of the larger Norse expansion that began about 800 C.E.. The expansion was caused by population pressure, limited farmland, and resistance to Christian missions. During the eighth century C.E., Norse mariners developed shipbuilding techniques and seafaring skills. These techniques and skills enabled them to travel safely and reliably through the open ocean. They established settlements in the Shetland Islands, the Faeroes, Iceland, and Greenland. Around 1000 C.E., a small group established a colony at Newfoundland (modern Canada) and explored the Atlantic coast of North America and went at least as far as Maine. The colonies in north America only survived a few decades and the colony in Greenland disappearead around 1500 C.E. because cooling global climate made it difficult to cultivate crops in the region. Most Norse seafarers were merchants looking for commercial opportunities or migrants looking for land to settle and cultivate. Some used their maritime skills to raid and plunder other empires. These people were called the Vikings. It originally referred to a group of Vik people that invaded the British Isles. Overtime the term was used to describe any Norse mariner who mounted invasions and plundered settlements in eastern Europe and into the Mediterranean. They sailed boats that could cross heavy seas, but their boats could also navigate many rivers. Viking sailors timed their attacks to take advantage of the tides. Some boats had dragon heads mounted on them. In 844 C.E. more than 150 Viking ships sailed up the Garonne River and plundered settlements. In 845 a fleet of about 800 ships attacked Hamburg, Germany. In 885 a fleet of at least 700 ships attacked Paris. In 994 about 100 ships raided London. Some Vikings went into the Mediterranean and plundered sites in the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and southern Italy. Some Vikings radied Constantinople and it was attacked at least three times during the ninth and tenth centuries.
The Establishment of Regional Authorities
Foreign invasions prompted countries to initiate political and military power. Different countries responded different to the invasions. For example, England was raided by the Vikings and in response, they merged small kingdoms into large realms under the rule of King Alfred. Alfred also constructed a navy and built fortresses to challenge the Vikings. In Germany, when Carolingian rulers could not prevent the invasions, Germanic rulers took the situation into their own hands. One of the most important of these rulers was King Otto I. He defeated a large Magyar army to end threats upon the country. In France, local authorities rapidly increased. The authorities collected taxes, built castles, and organized a military. By ending 9th century attacks, these countries were the foundation for social, economic, and cultural development.
Early Medieval Society
Organizing a Decentralized Society
After the Carolingian empire, European nobles created a decentralized society. Local nobles were in charge of maintaining order in their territory. The nobles had at least a nominal allegiance to the higher authority. The nobles also collected rent and fees, administrated local affairs, mobilized local armies, decided legal disputes, and tried to make themself more powerful. Local nobles built military and political relationships with other important individuals in their territory. They built small private armies by offering retainers land or money. As the Carolingian empire dissolved, authorities changed these practices. Sometimes retainers were given income generated by a mill, rent/payments from a village, or even money. In extange for the gifts to retainers, the retainers owed loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel, and military service to their lords. Relationships between lords and retainers became stronger. Retainers became resposoible for organizing public works projects, resolving disputes, and administrating justice. Political authorities and military specialists became part of the hereditary noble class and lived off the surplus agriculture production. The decentralized political order was very complex and complicated. If retainers disobeyed their lords and the lords could not control them, it could lead to political chaos. Some high-ranking lords built powerful states. Some lords monitored their retainers so they could not become too independent. During the high middle ages, the king of France and the king of England depended on their relationships with retainers to create a powerful, centralized monarchy.
Serfs and Manors
Manors were large acres of fields and forests that contained animals, lakes, and rivers. The Lord of the manor would provide government and justice. Many lords could execute serfs for serious crimes such as murder or other violent crimes. By the Carolingian era, there were many manors in France, western Germany, southern England, and northern Italy. Small markets were usually located in manors and provided goods that could not be produced by themselves like salt. Manors were self-sufficient and maintained bakeries, mills, breweries, and wineries. The lord of the manor had serfs make most of the necessary iron tools, leather goods, textiles, and domestic utensils. Serfs were a class of individuals who were semifree (they were not fully slave, but they were not fully free). Serf's obligations included labor services and payment of rent (such as a portion of a serf's own harvest, a chicken, or a dozen eggs). Male serfs usually worked three days a week in their lord's fields and worked more during planting and harvesting seasons. Female serfs churned butter, made cheese, brewed beer, spun thread, wove cloth, and made clothes for the lords and their families. Other female serfs kept sheep and cattle and had to give the lords products from their herds. Serfs owned land and had little opportunity to move; they could only move if they had their lords permission. Serfs had to pay fees if they wanted to marry a serf that worked for a different lord.
The Economy of Early Medieval Europe
The agriculture of the Mediterranean shifted towards northern lands such as France. However the Mediterranean small plow did not work on there heavy, moist soil. After the eight century a heavy more serviceable plow became accessible. This plow, known as the heavy plow, was more expensive and it required the cultivators to harness much more energy to pull it through moist northern soil. This plow became popular throughout western Europe and helped cultivators to take additional steps towards agricultural production. They also constructed watermills, with enabled them to take advantage of ready and renewable source of of inanimate energy, thus freeing human and animal energy for other work. They also developed a new horse collar which enabled them to rely of faster paced horses then their previous slow oxen.
Trade didn't disappear from western Europe. Local markets allowed small-scale exchange. Also, maritime trade flourished in the Mediterranean despite Muslim conquests in that region. About 1000 C.E. food crops that earlier had made their way through Islamic world began to take root in Mediterranean Europe. These foods included rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, lemons, limes, oranges, and melons.
Norse Merchant-Mariners, kinsmen of the Vikings were traders themselves. They were able to trade with both the Byzantine and Abbasid empires because of their travel down the Russian rivers to the black sea. They took Scandinavian products to the Abbasid empire and brought back silver. Sliver for these men was a principal source of bullion used for minting coins in early medieval Europe. This was important element of the western European economy.
The population in 200 C.E., before the Roman empire began to experience serous difficulties, was about 36 million. However it fell over the next four centuries to 31 million in 400 C.E. and in 600 C.E. it was 26 million. However it gradually began to edge up to 29 million in 800 C.E. and came all the way back up to 36 million in 1000 C.E. due to the political and agricultural stability and innovations.
The Formation of Christian Europe
The Politics of Conversion
Clovis and the Franks won the support of the church hierarchy as well as the Christian population of the former Roman empire when they converted to the Roman faith. Charlemagne mounted a military campaign that destroyed the power of the Lombards, who had threatened the popes and the city of Rome since the sixth century. Charlemagne supported the church in Italy and worked to spread Christianity into Northern lands. He maintained a school and had scholars from all parts of his empire teach Christian doctrine to men preparing for careers as priests or church officials. Charlemagne's efforts increased the understanding of Latin and caused an explosion of writing. He also promoted the spread of Christianity through military force such as his campaign against the Saxons, a pagan people inhabiting northern Germany. Though the Saxons put up a strong fight, Charlemagne prevailed and won over the Saxons. By the year 1000, Christianity had won the allegiance of most people throughout western Europe and even in the Nordic lands. Because of Charlemagne he established Christianity as the dominant religion and cultural in western Europe. (RW)
The Papacy
The Roman church benefited from strong papal leadership. When the Roman empire collapsed papacy survived and claimed spiritual authority over all the lands that embraced that religion. The popes worked with the Byzantine emperors, who natural heirs to the emperors of Rome. By the late sixth century popes became more independent. After the eleventh century the two branches of Christianity formed, Roman Catholic and Easter Orthodox churches.
Pope Gregory I, or Gregory the Great, was faced with a lot of difficult challenges. Since bishops acted independently from the pope he had to reassert papal primacy. This is the claim that the bishop of Rome was the ultimate authority in the Christian church. He also emphasized the sacrament of penance which required individuals to confess their sins to their priests and then to atone for their sins by penitential acts prescribed by the priests. He also strengthened the Roman church further by extending its appeal and winning new converts in western Europe. He aimed at converting Kings hoping that this would induce their subjects to adopt Christianity. Gregory's successors expanded his policies through missionary work. (RW)
Monasticism
Monastic rules varied from each community. Some did not have clear expectations causing them not to be as effective in Christian missions. While some demanded their inhabitants follow extremely austere lifestyles that sapped the energy of the monks.
St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547 C.E.) helped strengthen the early monastic movement by providing discipline and a sense of purpose. He created a set of regulations known as Benedict's Rule for the monastic community that he had founded in Monte Casino, near Rome. This book did not allow extreme asceticism. Benedict's Rule called for monks to spend their time in prayer, meditation, and work. Other monasteries began adopting Benedict's Rule.(RW) European monasaries also provided a variey of social servieces. They served as inns for travelers and places for refuge for people who were suffering from natural or other calamities. They served as orphanages and helped treat the ill and injured. They often set up schools. Small monasaries provided basic education while larger monasaries provided more advanced education. Some monasaries had libraries and scriptoria. Monasaries served as a source of literate, educated, and talented individuals who had secretarial and administrative knowledge that was essential for the organization of effective government in early Europe.
Chapter 20
Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
The Establishment of Regional States
The Holy Roman Empire
Local authorities began to extend their power as the Carolingian empire was coming to an end. King Otto was one of these people and he invaded Italy to end political disturbances, protect the church, and seek opportunities in the south. Pope John XII declared Otto the Holy Roman Emperor to thank him for his efforts. Some emperors almost transformed the Holy Roman Empire into a hegemonic state that could have reintroduced imperial unity to Europe. However, conflict with the papacy prevented emperors from building a strong and dynamic state. The popes crowned medieval emperors, however their relations were usually tense. This was because both the popes and the emperors claimed authority in Christian Europe. Relations became worse when emperors tried to influence the selection of church officials. While neither the popes or the emperors could dominate each other, popes could prevent the emperors from building a powerful imperial stae. In an effort to regain control of the clergy and to prevent emperors from electing clergymen who were not fit for the job, Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice of lay investiture (the selection and istallation of church officials by lay rulers such as the empreror). When Emperor Henry IV challenged the policy, the pope excommunicated him and released his subjects. German princes then rebeled against the emperor. Henry eventually regained controled, but only at Gregory's mercy. Frederick I (Frederick Barbarossa) worked to absorb the walthy and uban region of Lombardy in north Italy into his empire in southern Germany. This would have provided Barbarossa with many resources he would have been able to use to control much of Europe. The papal coalition forced the emperor to give Lombardy its freedom by the end of his reign. The Holy Roman Empire was a regional state that ruled Germany and widely influenced eastern Europe and Italy. However it was not holy, or Roman, and it was not an empire.
Regional Monarchies in France and England
Since there was not an effective regional imperial power, regional states emerged throughout medieval Europe. After the last Carolingians died, French lords elected a minor noble named Hugh Capet to serve as king. He only had a small territory around Paris and some of his retainers were more powerful than he was. However, his descendants, known as Capetian kings, gradually added resources and expanded the political influence of their region. They absorbed the territories of retainers who died and did not have any heirs and they established the right to administer justice throughout the empire. By the early fourteenth century, the Capetian kings had centeralized the power and authority in France. The English founders were Normans. Normans were descendants of Vikings that made a state in the peninsula of Normandy in France during the ninth century. Although they were nominally subject to the Carolingian and Capetain rulers, the dukes of Normandy pursued their own interests. The dukes buit a centralized state in which all of the authority stemmed from the dukes. The dukes retained title to all the land and, to prevent conflicts of interest, they limited the right of their retainers to grant land to others. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy invaded England (at that time ruled by descendents of the Angles, Saxons, and other Germanic people). Following a fast military victory Duke William, known as William the Conquerer, introduced Norman principals of government and land holding to England. While retaining many institutions, the Norman kings ruled over a more tightly centralized empire than the Capetian kings of France. Both the Capetians and the Normas faced challenges from retainers who wanted to pursue independent policies or increase their powers. They often the battled each other because the Normans periodically wanted to expand into France. Both the Capetians and the Normans organized regional monarchies that maintained order and provided a fairly good government.
Regional States in Italy and Iberia
In Italy, there was not one group of people that controlled the entire peninsula. A series of ecclestiastical states, city-states, and principalities competed for position and power. In central Italy the popes provided political leadership. The popes ruled a good-size territory in central Italy known as the Papal State. In northern Italy, the church influenced political affairs because bishops of major cities helped organize public life in their regions. During the high middle ages, as cities became more wealthy from trade and manufacturing, lay classes challenged the bishops and eventually displaced them as the ruling authority. By about the twelft centruy a series of prosperous city-states, including Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Milan, and Venice, dominated their urban districts and the surrounding hinterlands. In southern Italy, Norman advenurers invaded territories still claimed by the Byzantine empire and various Muslim states. With the papal's support and approval, they overcame Byzantine and Muslim authorities, brought southern Italy into Roman Catholic Christianity, and laid the foundation for the powerful kingdom of Naples. Like in Italy, a series of regional states competed for power in the Iberian penninsula. From the eight to the elevent centuries, Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula. Small Christian states survived the Muslim conquest in north Spain. Beginning in the mid-eleventh century, Christian adventurers from these states began attacking Muslim territories and enlarge their own territory. By the late thirteenth century, the Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal controlled a majority of the Iberian peninsula, leaving only the small kingdom of Granada to the Muslims. European rulers rarely wanted to maintain the current state affairs, they wanted to constantly enlarge their territories at their neighbors expense. As a result, the political history of medieval Europe is very complicated. However, the regional states of the high middle ages effectively organized poublic affairs in limited regions. Since they did this, they made alternztives to a centralized empire as a form of political organization.
Economic Growth and Social Development
Growth of the Agricultural Economy
Several developments help to account for this increased agricultural production:
The opening of new lands to cultivation
Improved agricultural techniques
Experimented with new crops and had different cycles of crop rotation to ensure the most abundant harvests
Kept domestic animals which served as a source of food, of burden, and fertilized the soil with their droppings
The use of new tools and technologies
Europeans expanded their use of windmills
Invented the horseshoe, which prevented horses hooves from splitting while trotting on the soil
Invented the horse collar, this allowed horses to pull heavy loads without choking
The introduction of new crops
In the early middle ages their diet consisted mainly of grains and grain products such as bread
In 1000-1300 meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables,beans and peas became more prominent
Also through Islamic world they were introduced to rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, lemons, limes and oranges
Because of these agricultural advancements the populations grew abundantly. In 1000 it had edged back up to 36 million, but ove the next few centuries it grew even more. In 1100 it reached 44 million, in 1200 it grew to 58 million and by 1300 it grew an additional 36%, raising it to 79 million. (RW)
The Revival of Towns and Trade
Urbanization
European society was able to support large numbers of urban residents- artisans, crafts workers, merchants and professionals.
Cities founded during Roman times, such as Paris, London and Toledo became thriving centers of government.
For the first time since the fall of the Roman empire, cities began to play a role in European economic and social developments.
Textile Production
Because of the growth of towns and cities specialized labor increased.
This was especially true in the wool textiles.
The cities of Italy were lively centers for spinning, weaving, and dyeing of wool
Mediterranean Trade
In the tenth century the cities of Amalfi and Venice served as ports for merchants engaged in trade with Byzantine and Muslim partners in the eastern Mediterranean
Things they exchanged was, salt, olive oil, wine, wool fabrics, leather products, and glass for luxury goods such as gems, spices, and silk.
Hanseatic League
Hansa was an association of trading cities stretching from Novgorod to London and embraced all the significant commercial centers of Poland, northern Germany, and Scandinavia.
These people dominated in grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch from northern Europe
Improved Business Techniques
Because of the increasing volume of trade the development of credit, banking and new forms of business appeared.
Also, merchants entered into partnerships with other merchants.(RW)
Social Change
The Three Estates
"Those who pray"- these were the clergy of the Roman Catholic church, including parish priests all the way to the popes.
"Those who fight"- these came from the ranks of nobles. They inherited their positions in society and focused on education and equestrian and military skills.
"Those who work"- these were the people who cultivated land as peasants and depended on those who fought. They made up the majority of the population.
Society was marked by political, social and economic inequality.
Chivalry
This was a widely recognized code of ethics and behavior considered appropriate for nobles.
Chivalric code was an effort to curb fighting within Christendom
It encouraged them to devote themselves (the nobles) to the causes of order, piety, and the Christian faith.
Troubadours
Troubadours were a class of traveling poets, minstrels and entertainers .
They elevated storytelling as an art.
They were found in every social class.
Eleanor of Aquitaine
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) supported romantic poets and entertainers. She was the most celebrated woman of her day.
Because of the troubadours' performances, over a long term, the songs began to soften the manners of the nobility.
Guilds
Guilds had a social and economic significance
Guilds came to the aid of members and their families by providing financial and moral support for those who fell ill.
Urban Women
Though most countryside women continued to perform the same kinds of tasks that their ancestors tended to in the early middle ages.
In larger towns women served alongside men as butchers, brewers, bakers, candle makers, fishmongers, shoemakers, gem smiths, innkeepers, launderers, money changers, merchants, and occasionally physicians and pharmacists.
Women dominated some occupations such as textiles and decorative arts, such as sewing, spinning, weaving and the making of hats, wigs and fur garments.(RW)
European Christianity during the High Middle Ages
Schools, Universities, and Scholastic Theology
Cathedral Schools
Due to complicated political, legal, and theological issues there was a demand for educated individuals.
At these schools they concentrated on liberal arts, especially literature and philosophy. They read the writings of St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and St. Ambrose.
Latin literature by Plato and Aristotle was also included
Universities
Students and Teachers organized academic guilds and persuaded political authorities to grant charters guaranteeing their rights and demanding fair treatment for students
These guilds had the effect of transforming these schools into Universities.
The first universities were of bologna, Paris, and Salerno. They appeared in Rome, Naples Seville, Salamanca, Oxford, Cambridge and other cities through Europe.
The Influence of Aristotle
The Roman Catholic Christians learned about Aristotle’s thoughts and became accessible to European Christian scholars.
Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas
The understanding of Aristotle’s thought allowed the emergence of scholastic theology which south to synthesize the beliefs and values of Christianity with the logical rigor of Greek philosophy.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1275) spent his career teaching at the University of Paris. He believed that Aristotle’s views went hand in hand with Christianity.
By combining Aristotle’s rational power with the teachings of Christianity, St. Thomas expected to formulate the most truthful and persuasive system of thought possible.(RW)
Popular Religion
Sacraments
Sacraments are holy rituals that bring spiritual blessings on the observants.
The church recognized seven sacraments, including baptism, matrimony, penance and the Eucharist (Lord’s Supper).
The most popular was Eucharist, which commemorated Jesus’ last meal.
Devotion to Saints
Saints were human beings who had led such exemplary lives that God held them in special esteem. As a result they were able to intervene on behalf of individuals living in the world.
Tradition held that certain saints could cure diseases, relieve toothaches and guide sailors through storms to ports.
The Virgin Mary
The Virgin Mary was the mother of Jesus, and was the ideal of womanhood, love, and sympathy.
Many churches and cathedrals were dedicated to the Virgin.
Saint’s Relics
Because of the high esteem they had for their saints and the Virgin, they collected relics. These include hair, clothes, and locks of hair or teeth.
Also there was the supposed crown of thorns that Jesus wore when he was crucified. Also drops of the Virgin’s mild miraculously preserved in a vial.
Pilgrimage
The fame of relics reached well beyond their own regions.
Streams of pilgrims visited two European cities- Rome and Compostela, Spain.
Because of the commonness of pilgrimages there was an industry created to serve pilgrims.
They were inns that dotted the routes leading to popular churches and shrines, also there were even guide books that pointed out the major attractions along pilgrims’ routes and warned them of dangers (RW)
Reform Movements and Popular Heresies
Dominicans and Franciscans
There were organized movements designed to champion spiritual over materialistic values.
The most prominent were St. Dominic and St. Francis. They begged for their food and had no personal possessions.
Popular Heresy
Waldensians were a group that despised the Roman Catholic clergy as immoral and corrupt and they advocated modest and simple lives. (RW)
The Medieval Expansion of Europe
Atlantic and Baltic Colonization
Vinland
About 100 C.E. Lief Ericsson led an exploratory party south and west of Greenland and arrived at modern Newfoundland in Canada.
They maintained their colony for several decades
Christianity in Scandinavia
The Roman Catholic Church drew Scandinavia into the Christian community.
By the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, Sweden, Finland and Norway had adopted the Christian faith.
The Reconquest of Sicily and Spain
Crusading Orders and Baltic Expansion
Zealous Christians formed military-religious orders. The most prominent were the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic knights who took religious vows and devoted their lives to the struggle against Muslims and pagans.
The Reconquest of Sicily
Missionaries and clergies soon appeared on this Island and reintroduced Christianity to Sicily.
Over the longer term, however as Muslims either left Sicily or converted to Christianity, Islam gradually disappeared from the island.
The Reconquista of Spain
Recapturing Spain too much longer that Sicily. The process began in 1060’s from Christian toeholds. By 1150 they had recaptured Lisbon.
By 1492 the Christians the Christians had completed the Reconquista.
Popes enthusiastically encouraged campaigns against the Muslims.
With the establishment of Christian rule, the Roman Catholic Church began to displace Islam in conquered Spain.(RW)
The Crusades
Crusades were holy wars that began when a pope declared one. To symbolise faith, warriors would "take up the cross". In an effort to recapture Palestine and Jerusalem, Pope Urban II was in charge of five crusades against Muslims in 1905. A man named Peter the Hermit would travel about Germany and France in order to gain support for the holy wars. Peter organized a group of peasants to aid with the crusades, but they failed to recapture Jerusalem or Palestine. Results of the Crusades include improved technology, increased cultural diffusion, and weakened the Byzantine empire.
Post Classical Europe
Chapter 17
The Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe
In 802 C.E., an albino elephant, named Abu al-Abbas, was given to the Charlemagne empire by the Indian king. The elephant later died in 810 C.E.. However, Charlemagne did not like Islamic people. He fought many battles against Muslim armies. He sent at least three embassies to Baghdad that dealt with several issues including: the safety of Christian pilgrims and merchants, relations between Charlemagne's empire and its neighbors, and its policy toward the Byzantine empire. Charlemagne's empire fell because it was weak and poor compared to other empires. Europeans did not build powerful societies as quickly as other civilizations. After various invasions, Europeans had to restore political order, restore the economy, and build a framework for institutions. Christianity helped shape European culture and society.The Quest for Political Order
Germanic Successor States
After the last Roman emperor, Roman administrative and government did not change altogether. Invasions caused population to decline and institutions weakend. By the late fifth century C.E., invaders set up a seriesof Germanic kingdoms. Visigoths dominated Spain, Ostrogoths dominated Italy until the 530s, Byzantines controlled much of the east Mediterranean Sea, Lombards dominated Italy after the 530s, Franks controlled France, and Angles and Saxons controlled Britain. Germanic people gradually displaced the Roman authority and institutions, but they also absorbed Roman influence. Many converted to Christianity and adapted Roman law. The Franks influenced political, social, and cultural development in Europe. The Frank society used agricultural resources of Europe and did not trade actively with the Mediterranean basin. They develped decentralized political institutions and made a strong alliance with the western Christian church.The Franks and the Temporary Revival of Empired
As the Roman empire was falling, the Franks did not seem likely to have a very important role in European affairs. That all changed in 481 when a strong military leader, Clovis, came to rule the Franks until his death in 511. Under his rule, the rest of the Roman authority was destroyed and the Franks became an important military and political power. The Frank state became the most powerful and dynamic of all the new states. The Franks' rise also had to do with their religion. Originally most Germans were polytheistic and later converted to Arian Christianity. Unlike many other Germanic peoples, Clovis converted to Roman Christianity. The Franks received commitment from the pope and western Christian church by doing this. Strong ties with the church developed the Franks to the most powerful Germanic peoples between the fifth and ninth centuries. But, after Clovis's death, the Franks lost a majority of authority. Around the early 8th century, a clan called the Carolingians took over Clovis's place. The founder, Charles Martel reigned over the Franks until 751. The Franks reached their height when Martel's grandson, Charlemagne took over. He was very intelligent and established a capital and court. Although, he relied on counts (deputies) who held military, political, and legal power. The counts sometimes engage in policies opposite of the government, so Charlemagne developed a group of officers called missi dominici. Charlemagne extended the empire into north eastern Spain, Bavaria, and Italy (as far south as Rome). It was not until 800 CE that Charlemagne accepted the title of emperor because he did not want to upset Byzantine emperors.Decline and Dissolution of the Carolingian Empire
Charlemagne's son, "Louis the Pious" reigned after his father died in 814 until 840. He didn't have the strong military skills or the will that his father did. Due to this, Louis lost control over authorities who pursued in their own interests. Louis had three sons who divided the empire into thirds after Louis's death, each ruling one part of the empire causing the empire to later collapse. The Carolingian empire also experienced invasions from the Frankish people, Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings, looking for wealth. Viking invasions were part of the larger Norse expansion that began about 800 C.E.. The expansion was caused by population pressure, limited farmland, and resistance to Christian missions. During the eighth century C.E., Norse mariners developed shipbuilding techniques and seafaring skills. These techniques and skills enabled them to travel safely and reliably through the open ocean. They established settlements in the Shetland Islands, the Faeroes, Iceland, and Greenland. Around 1000 C.E., a small group established a colony at Newfoundland (modern Canada) and explored the Atlantic coast of North America and went at least as far as Maine. The colonies in north America only survived a few decades and the colony in Greenland disappearead around 1500 C.E. because cooling global climate made it difficult to cultivate crops in the region. Most Norse seafarers were merchants looking for commercial opportunities or migrants looking for land to settle and cultivate. Some used their maritime skills to raid and plunder other empires. These people were called the Vikings. It originally referred to a group of Vik people that invaded the British Isles. Overtime the term was used to describe any Norse mariner who mounted invasions and plundered settlements in eastern Europe and into the Mediterranean. They sailed boats that could cross heavy seas, but their boats could also navigate many rivers. Viking sailors timed their attacks to take advantage of the tides. Some boats had dragon heads mounted on them. In 844 C.E. more than 150 Viking ships sailed up the Garonne River and plundered settlements. In 845 a fleet of about 800 ships attacked Hamburg, Germany. In 885 a fleet of at least 700 ships attacked Paris. In 994 about 100 ships raided London. Some Vikings went into the Mediterranean and plundered sites in the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and southern Italy. Some Vikings radied Constantinople and it was attacked at least three times during the ninth and tenth centuries.The Establishment of Regional Authorities
Foreign invasions prompted countries to initiate political and military power. Different countries responded different to the invasions. For example, England was raided by the Vikings and in response, they merged small kingdoms into large realms under the rule of King Alfred. Alfred also constructed a navy and built fortresses to challenge the Vikings. In Germany, when Carolingian rulers could not prevent the invasions, Germanic rulers took the situation into their own hands. One of the most important of these rulers was King Otto I. He defeated a large Magyar army to end threats upon the country. In France, local authorities rapidly increased. The authorities collected taxes, built castles, and organized a military. By ending 9th century attacks, these countries were the foundation for social, economic, and cultural development.Early Medieval Society
Organizing a Decentralized Society
After the Carolingian empire, European nobles created a decentralized society. Local nobles were in charge of maintaining order in their territory. The nobles had at least a nominal allegiance to the higher authority. The nobles also collected rent and fees, administrated local affairs, mobilized local armies, decided legal disputes, and tried to make themself more powerful. Local nobles built military and political relationships with other important individuals in their territory. They built small private armies by offering retainers land or money. As the Carolingian empire dissolved, authorities changed these practices. Sometimes retainers were given income generated by a mill, rent/payments from a village, or even money. In extange for the gifts to retainers, the retainers owed loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel, and military service to their lords. Relationships between lords and retainers became stronger. Retainers became resposoible for organizing public works projects, resolving disputes, and administrating justice. Political authorities and military specialists became part of the hereditary noble class and lived off the surplus agriculture production. The decentralized political order was very complex and complicated. If retainers disobeyed their lords and the lords could not control them, it could lead to political chaos. Some high-ranking lords built powerful states. Some lords monitored their retainers so they could not become too independent. During the high middle ages, the king of France and the king of England depended on their relationships with retainers to create a powerful, centralized monarchy.Serfs and Manors
Manors were large acres of fields and forests that contained animals, lakes, and rivers. The Lord of the manor would provide government and justice. Many lords could execute serfs for serious crimes such as murder or other violent crimes. By the Carolingian era, there were many manors in France, western Germany, southern England, and northern Italy. Small markets were usually located in manors and provided goods that could not be produced by themselves like salt. Manors were self-sufficient and maintained bakeries, mills, breweries, and wineries. The lord of the manor had serfs make most of the necessary iron tools, leather goods, textiles, and domestic utensils. Serfs were a class of individuals who were semifree (they were not fully slave, but they were not fully free). Serf's obligations included labor services and payment of rent (such as a portion of a serf's own harvest, a chicken, or a dozen eggs). Male serfs usually worked three days a week in their lord's fields and worked more during planting and harvesting seasons. Female serfs churned butter, made cheese, brewed beer, spun thread, wove cloth, and made clothes for the lords and their families. Other female serfs kept sheep and cattle and had to give the lords products from their herds. Serfs owned land and had little opportunity to move; they could only move if they had their lords permission. Serfs had to pay fees if they wanted to marry a serf that worked for a different lord.The Economy of Early Medieval Europe
The agriculture of the Mediterranean shifted towards northern lands such as France. However the Mediterranean small plow did not work on there heavy, moist soil. After the eight century a heavy more serviceable plow became accessible. This plow, known as the heavy plow, was more expensive and it required the cultivators to harness much more energy to pull it through moist northern soil. This plow became popular throughout western Europe and helped cultivators to take additional steps towards agricultural production. They also constructed watermills, with enabled them to take advantage of ready and renewable source of of inanimate energy, thus freeing human and animal energy for other work. They also developed a new horse collar which enabled them to rely of faster paced horses then their previous slow oxen.Trade didn't disappear from western Europe. Local markets allowed small-scale exchange. Also, maritime trade flourished in the Mediterranean despite Muslim conquests in that region. About 1000 C.E. food crops that earlier had made their way through Islamic world began to take root in Mediterranean Europe. These foods included rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, lemons, limes, oranges, and melons.
Norse Merchant-Mariners, kinsmen of the Vikings were traders themselves. They were able to trade with both the Byzantine and Abbasid empires because of their travel down the Russian rivers to the black sea. They took Scandinavian products to the Abbasid empire and brought back silver. Sliver for these men was a principal source of bullion used for minting coins in early medieval Europe. This was important element of the western European economy.
The population in 200 C.E., before the Roman empire began to experience serous difficulties, was about 36 million. However it fell over the next four centuries to 31 million in 400 C.E. and in 600 C.E. it was 26 million. However it gradually began to edge up to 29 million in 800 C.E. and came all the way back up to 36 million in 1000 C.E. due to the political and agricultural stability and innovations.
The Formation of Christian Europe
The Politics of Conversion
Clovis and the Franks won the support of the church hierarchy as well as the Christian population of the former Roman empire when they converted to the Roman faith. Charlemagne mounted a military campaign that destroyed the power of the Lombards, who had threatened the popes and the city of Rome since the sixth century. Charlemagne supported the church in Italy and worked to spread Christianity into Northern lands. He maintained a school and had scholars from all parts of his empire teach Christian doctrine to men preparing for careers as priests or church officials. Charlemagne's efforts increased the understanding of Latin and caused an explosion of writing. He also promoted the spread of Christianity through military force such as his campaign against the Saxons, a pagan people inhabiting northern Germany. Though the Saxons put up a strong fight, Charlemagne prevailed and won over the Saxons. By the year 1000, Christianity had won the allegiance of most people throughout western Europe and even in the Nordic lands. Because of Charlemagne he established Christianity as the dominant religion and cultural in western Europe. (RW)The Papacy
The Roman church benefited from strong papal leadership. When the Roman empire collapsed papacy survived and claimed spiritual authority over all the lands that embraced that religion. The popes worked with the Byzantine emperors, who natural heirs to the emperors of Rome. By the late sixth century popes became more independent. After the eleventh century the two branches of Christianity formed, Roman Catholic and Easter Orthodox churches.Pope Gregory I, or Gregory the Great, was faced with a lot of difficult challenges. Since bishops acted independently from the pope he had to reassert papal primacy. This is the claim that the bishop of Rome was the ultimate authority in the Christian church. He also emphasized the sacrament of penance which required individuals to confess their sins to their priests and then to atone for their sins by penitential acts prescribed by the priests. He also strengthened the Roman church further by extending its appeal and winning new converts in western Europe. He aimed at converting Kings hoping that this would induce their subjects to adopt Christianity. Gregory's successors expanded his policies through missionary work. (RW)
Monasticism
Monastic rules varied from each community. Some did not have clear expectations causing them not to be as effective in Christian missions. While some demanded their inhabitants follow extremely austere lifestyles that sapped the energy of the monks.St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547 C.E.) helped strengthen the early monastic movement by providing discipline and a sense of purpose. He created a set of regulations known as Benedict's Rule for the monastic community that he had founded in Monte Casino, near Rome. This book did not allow extreme asceticism. Benedict's Rule called for monks to spend their time in prayer, meditation, and work. Other monasteries began adopting Benedict's Rule.(RW) European monasaries also provided a variey of social servieces. They served as inns for travelers and places for refuge for people who were suffering from natural or other calamities. They served as orphanages and helped treat the ill and injured. They often set up schools. Small monasaries provided basic education while larger monasaries provided more advanced education. Some monasaries had libraries and scriptoria. Monasaries served as a source of literate, educated, and talented individuals who had secretarial and administrative knowledge that was essential for the organization of effective government in early Europe.
Chapter 20
Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
The Establishment of Regional States
The Holy Roman Empire
Local authorities began to extend their power as the Carolingian empire was coming to an end. King Otto was one of these people and he invaded Italy to end political disturbances, protect the church, and seek opportunities in the south. Pope John XII declared Otto the Holy Roman Emperor to thank him for his efforts. Some emperors almost transformed the Holy Roman Empire into a hegemonic state that could have reintroduced imperial unity to Europe. However, conflict with the papacy prevented emperors from building a strong and dynamic state. The popes crowned medieval emperors, however their relations were usually tense. This was because both the popes and the emperors claimed authority in Christian Europe. Relations became worse when emperors tried to influence the selection of church officials. While neither the popes or the emperors could dominate each other, popes could prevent the emperors from building a powerful imperial stae. In an effort to regain control of the clergy and to prevent emperors from electing clergymen who were not fit for the job, Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice of lay investiture (the selection and istallation of church officials by lay rulers such as the empreror). When Emperor Henry IV challenged the policy, the pope excommunicated him and released his subjects. German princes then rebeled against the emperor. Henry eventually regained controled, but only at Gregory's mercy. Frederick I (Frederick Barbarossa) worked to absorb the walthy and uban region of Lombardy in north Italy into his empire in southern Germany. This would have provided Barbarossa with many resources he would have been able to use to control much of Europe. The papal coalition forced the emperor to give Lombardy its freedom by the end of his reign. The Holy Roman Empire was a regional state that ruled Germany and widely influenced eastern Europe and Italy. However it was not holy, or Roman, and it was not an empire.Regional Monarchies in France and England
Since there was not an effective regional imperial power, regional states emerged throughout medieval Europe. After the last Carolingians died, French lords elected a minor noble named Hugh Capet to serve as king. He only had a small territory around Paris and some of his retainers were more powerful than he was. However, his descendants, known as Capetian kings, gradually added resources and expanded the political influence of their region. They absorbed the territories of retainers who died and did not have any heirs and they established the right to administer justice throughout the empire. By the early fourteenth century, the Capetian kings had centeralized the power and authority in France. The English founders were Normans. Normans were descendants of Vikings that made a state in the peninsula of Normandy in France during the ninth century. Although they were nominally subject to the Carolingian and Capetain rulers, the dukes of Normandy pursued their own interests. The dukes buit a centralized state in which all of the authority stemmed from the dukes. The dukes retained title to all the land and, to prevent conflicts of interest, they limited the right of their retainers to grant land to others. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy invaded England (at that time ruled by descendents of the Angles, Saxons, and other Germanic people). Following a fast military victory Duke William, known as William the Conquerer, introduced Norman principals of government and land holding to England. While retaining many institutions, the Norman kings ruled over a more tightly centralized empire than the Capetian kings of France. Both the Capetians and the Normas faced challenges from retainers who wanted to pursue independent policies or increase their powers. They often the battled each other because the Normans periodically wanted to expand into France. Both the Capetians and the Normans organized regional monarchies that maintained order and provided a fairly good government.Regional States in Italy and Iberia
In Italy, there was not one group of people that controlled the entire peninsula. A series of ecclestiastical states, city-states, and principalities competed for position and power. In central Italy the popes provided political leadership. The popes ruled a good-size territory in central Italy known as the Papal State. In northern Italy, the church influenced political affairs because bishops of major cities helped organize public life in their regions. During the high middle ages, as cities became more wealthy from trade and manufacturing, lay classes challenged the bishops and eventually displaced them as the ruling authority. By about the twelft centruy a series of prosperous city-states, including Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Milan, and Venice, dominated their urban districts and the surrounding hinterlands. In southern Italy, Norman advenurers invaded territories still claimed by the Byzantine empire and various Muslim states. With the papal's support and approval, they overcame Byzantine and Muslim authorities, brought southern Italy into Roman Catholic Christianity, and laid the foundation for the powerful kingdom of Naples. Like in Italy, a series of regional states competed for power in the Iberian penninsula. From the eight to the elevent centuries, Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula. Small Christian states survived the Muslim conquest in north Spain. Beginning in the mid-eleventh century, Christian adventurers from these states began attacking Muslim territories and enlarge their own territory. By the late thirteenth century, the Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal controlled a majority of the Iberian peninsula, leaving only the small kingdom of Granada to the Muslims. European rulers rarely wanted to maintain the current state affairs, they wanted to constantly enlarge their territories at their neighbors expense. As a result, the political history of medieval Europe is very complicated. However, the regional states of the high middle ages effectively organized poublic affairs in limited regions. Since they did this, they made alternztives to a centralized empire as a form of political organization.Economic Growth and Social Development
Growth of the Agricultural Economy
Several developments help to account for this increased agricultural production:Because of these agricultural advancements the populations grew abundantly. In 1000 it had edged back up to 36 million, but ove the next few centuries it grew even more. In 1100 it reached 44 million, in 1200 it grew to 58 million and by 1300 it grew an additional 36%, raising it to 79 million. (RW)
The Revival of Towns and Trade
Social Change
European Christianity during the High Middle Ages
Schools, Universities, and Scholastic Theology
Popular Religion
Reform Movements and Popular Heresies
The Medieval Expansion of Europe
Atlantic and Baltic Colonization
The Reconquest of Sicily and Spain
The Crusades
Crusades were holy wars that began when a pope declared one. To symbolise faith, warriors would "take up the cross". In an effort to recapture Palestine and Jerusalem, Pope Urban II was in charge of five crusades against Muslims in 1905. A man named Peter the Hermit would travel about Germany and France in order to gain support for the holy wars. Peter organized a group of peasants to aid with the crusades, but they failed to recapture Jerusalem or Palestine. Results of the Crusades include improved technology, increased cultural diffusion, and weakened the Byzantine empire.Timeline
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